6G, sub-THz, NTNs, Reconfigurable Intelligent Surfaces (RIS), Distributed MIMO, Semiconductors for 6G, antenna packaging, low-loss materials, heterogeneous integration.

 

Every 10-years, the telecoms industry enters a new 'Generation' of wireless communications. As of 2025, the industry is roughly half-way through its rollout of 5G, but behind the scenes work is well underway on preparing 6G which IDTechEx expects to enter commercialization around 2030. What is 6G, why is it needed, and what technologies will be required to fully leverage its new capabilities?

 

An overview of the spectrum characteristics from low bands up to Sub-THz. In general there is a trade-off between range and data transfer rate. Also note that 6G will not exclusively use Sub-THz, in fact the bulk of the coverage will be provided by mid-high bands (e.g. cmWave from 7-15 GHz), while higher frequencies are expected to be deployed in high-density zones (such as stadiums). Source: IDTechEx.

 

Wireless communications rely on electromagnetic signals to transmit data, with many signal characteristics determined by the frequency of the signals (often referred to as spectrum). At the simplest level, lower frequencies can propagate further while higher frequencies can enable higher data rates. For 5G, the new bands under consideration were the sub-6 GHz (3.5 - 6 GHz) and the higher frequency mmWave (24-100 GHz). mmWave was purported to bring much higher data rates and lower latencies, but challenging implementation have meant deployments remain low as of 2025, with some operators even forced to hand back under-utilized spectrum.

 

For 6G, the conversation about spectrum is largely coalescing around the so called 'cmWave', 7-15 GHz. This is expected to be the workhorse spectrum band, offering both good uplink/downlink performance but also manageable signal attenuation properties. Higher frequencies, such as sub-THz, are being explored for extreme performance cases, but rely on a host of as yet undeveloped technologies to combat signal attenuation (for example, reconfigurable intelligent surfaces).

 

An overview of 6G spectrum deployment strategy is shown in the figure below. Note that even though by definition the THz band runs from 300 GHz to 10 THz, telecom professionals have found it simpler to classify beyond-100 GHz applications as THz communications.

 

Spectrum deployment strategy for 6G/5G, utilizing the mid bands to give broad coverage whilst mmWave and Sub-THz enable new applications and high data rates. Source: IDTechEx.

 

What lessons are to be learned from the 5G rollout?

 

• Focus on real-world performance rather than inflated 'peak' metrics. Vendors have highlighted to IDTechEx the importance of improving the user core experience rather than focusing purely on 'edge-cases'. The report explores approaches to achieving this, such as the emergence of distributed MIMO to raise connectivity at cell-edges.
• Find realistic applications early. 5G was advertised with many 'prospective' applications, but in reality, these were only theoretical use-cases. As such when the network was rolled out there was a sense that it wasn't delivering on the promised capability. One of the surprising wins for 5G was fixed wireless access, a rather mundane but nevertheless monetizable service that has seen real commercial success over the last few years. This report breaks down emerging new applications (such as integrated sensing and communication, ISAC), and they could impact 6G.
• Build 6G as a standalone network from day one rather than non-standalone evolution of previous generation. By evolving 5G on a 4G LTE core, costs were saved in the short-term but meant that fully 'next generation' capabilities were not available. Industry sentiment is that 6G should be standalone from day one.

The move to higher frequencies brings a host of technical challenges, and industry and academia are working hard to develop a portfolio of technologies to mitigate these issues. IDTechEx's report takes a deep dive into the latest developments across

 

• 6G Radio. High data-rate radios are the core hardware than enable wireless communications to unlock higher bandwidths, which in turn unlock faster data rates and new applications, such as ISAC (Integrated Sensing and Communication). How will the strenuous technical targets for 6G hardware be met, why is generating power to achieve link range the biggest bottle-neck in the THz region, and what specific hardware challenges are associated with receiver noise at high-frequencies. This report breaks down all these questions and more, including comprehensive power consumption analysis of an illustrative 6G radio system.
• Semiconductors for 6G - selecting the right semiconductor requires an assessment of key link budget factors, particularly power amplifiers (PA) and low-noise amplifiers (LNA). This report explores various options for effective operation in the sub-THz spectrum (which requires transistors to function between 500-1000 GHz). SiGe and InP technologies meet these requirements, with a roadmap extending beyond 1 THz. The report also breaks down and benchmarks Si, GaN, and GaAs, SiGe, and InP across a variety of key metrics and relates their applicability to radio frequency applications in 6G.
• Heterogeneous integration. Antenna-in-package (AiP) technology is a key technology for high-frequency telecommunications, particularly in the mmWave and sub-THz ranges. By leveraging the short wavelengths of these frequencies, AiP allows for the integration of smaller antennas directly into semiconductor packages, unlike traditional antennas mounted separately on PCBs. This integration enhances antenna performance and significantly reduces the overall package size. As 6G technology approaches, research is focused on advancing AiP to integrate antennas directly onto RF components. However, this remains in the research phase due to manufacturing and scalability challenges.
• Reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RIS) are patterns of electrically conductive structures that modify the radio frequency (RF) propagation environment. They can be understood as macroscale photonic structures, in that by spatially varying the propagation rate the phase of adjacent wavefronts is adjusted. This enables precise spatial control of constructive and destructive interference, enabling a range of wave properties to be altered. In short RIS allows real-time dynamic manipulation of incoming wireless signals through reflection, refraction, and focusing. By deploying RIS throughout an urban environment, the short range of high-frequency signals can be effectively boosted, providing much grater network coverage without the need for costly and power-hungry base stations.

The report also explores the growing market of non-terrestrial networks (NTNs), which encompasses a wide range of operational methods of providing greater coverage than a traditional base station. The emergence of direct-2-cell (D2C) has been a direct consequence of the steep decline in launch costs, and in 2025 T-Mobile and Starlink partnered to offer D2C services. D2C currently provides very basic emergency text services in areas without cellular coverage, and the report explores how D2C in 6G could connect the unconnected, and what technical limits exist to providing broadband level coverage from a satellite direct to device.

 

This report includes a comprehensive review of the technology, players, use case studies, and market for 6G

• 6G development and activities in the context of the 5G rollout. Key lessons learned by vendors and operators to avoid disappointments of 5G.
• Detailed overview of 6G development status and future roadmap in key regions, including governmental strategy, funding, collaboration links.
• Detailed overview of key players' 6G activities, including partnerships, the projects involved, roadmap, technologies, etc.

Phase array module design for 6G

• How to obtain high data rate in over 100 GHz phase array is covered in depth in this chapter, from technical needs to fundamental challenges and viable solutions.
• Examples of state-of-the-art D-band (110 - 175 GHz) phase array modules

 

Non-terrestrial networks (NTN)

•  a comprehensive overview, technology benchmark of different types of NTN technologies, use cases, key announcement, and exploration of direct-2-cell (D2C) services.

 

1.1. Growth of Mobile Traffic Slows

1.2. Competing Narratives Regarding the Future of Traffic

1.3. 6G Rollout Timeline

1.4. 6G Industry Update - Vendors

1.5. Global 6G government-aided initiatives - an overview

1.6. Open RAN for 6G

1.7. Technical Targets for High Data-Rate 6G Radios

1.8. Navigating Challenges and Solutions in mmWave Phased Array Systems

1.9. Overview of transistor performance metrics of different semiconductor technologies

1.10. Overview of semiconductor technology choice for THz RF

1.11. Antenna Module Design Trends for 6G

1.12. Benchmarking Three Antenna Packaging Technologies

1.13. New opportunities for low-loss materials in mmWave 5G and 6G

1.14. Typical Dk and Df Values for 6G Applications

1.15. Benchmark - Dk vs Df of over 120 low-loss organic, inorganic & composite materials

1.16. Evolution of MIMO in Wireless Communications

1.17. Why Cell-Free MIMO

1.18. 6G - Key Applications Overview

1.19. Can NTNs Provide 5/6G Service?

1.20. Features comparison: HAPS vs LEO vs GEO

1.21. RIS - Overview

1.22. Commercial opportunities against readiness levels of RIS

1.23. RIS - Forecast Summary (1)

1.24. RIS Revenue Forecasts

1.25. 6G Base Stations (>100 GHz) Forecast

 

2.1. Evolving mobile communication focus

2.2. 5G Rollout Continues at Pace

2.3. Why Develop 6G?

2.4. Burdens on Network Operators

2.5. Growth in Mobile Data Traffic

2.6. Growth of Mobile Traffic Slows

2.7. Competing Narratives Regarding the Future of Traffic

2.8. Traffic Growth Plateau in China

2.9. Will Wireless Become Another Utility?

2.10. Video Streaming Increasingly the Dominant Application of Traffic

2.11. Is There Room for More Streaming Growth?

2.12. The Case for Faster Wireless Networks

2.13. Applications and Required Bandwidths

2.14. Will AI Drive Traffic Up?

2.15. AI Workload, On-Device vs Cloud

2.16. Autonomy and Future Mobility

2.17. Platooning

2.18. Lessons From 5G Rollout

 

3.1. What is 6G?

3.2. IMT-2030 Enhanced Performance Requirements

3.3. 6G Rollout Timeline

3.4. 6G spectrum - which bands are considered?

3.5. Bands vs Bandwidth

3.6. 6G Spectrum and Deployment Strategy

3.7. 6G performance with respect to 5G

3.8. Frequencies Beyond 100GHz

3.9. 6G - an overview of key applications

3.10. 6G - Overview of key enabling technologies (1)

3.11. 6G - Overview of key enabling technologies (2)

3.12. Summary: Global trends and new opportunities in 6G

3.13. DoCoMo, NTT sign 6G pact with Fujitsu, NEC, Nokia

3.14. Fujitsu teams with NTT and Docomo for 6G trials

 

4.1.1. 6G Industry Update - Vendors

4.1.2. 3GPP - Global Standards

4.1.3. 3GPP Working Group Takeaways

4.1.4. Spectrum for 6G

4.1.5. Upper 6 GHz band for 5G-Adv and 6G

4.1.6. Standalone vs Non-Standalone Rollout

4.1.7. Open RAN for 6G

4.1.8. Competition for Spectrum in Europe

4.1.9. Global 6G government-aided initiatives - an overview

4.1.10. 6G development roadmap - South Korea

4.1.11. South Korea - mmWave Challenges

4.1.12. 6G development roadmap - Japan

4.1.13. Funding models to research the next mobile communication infrastructure

4.2. USA

4.2.1. 6G development roadmap - US

4.2.2. US Network Operator Overview

4.2.3. CAPEX Spending of US Network Operators

4.2.4. FCC Shifts Policy Regarding 6GHz Spectrum Allocation

4.2.5. Nokia's 6G activity

4.2.6. Ericsson's 6G activity (1)

4.2.7. Ericsson's 6G activity (2)

4.2.8. Ericsson Early 6G Examples

4.2.9. Huawei's 6G activity

4.2.10. Samsung's 6G activity

4.2.11. Samsung's strategy to 6G

 

5.1. Technical Targets for High Data-Rate Radios

5.2. Potential 6G transceiver architecture

5.3. Overview of key technical elements in 6G radio system

5.4. Bandwidth and Modulation

5.5. Bandwidth requirements for supporting 100 Gbps - 1 Tbps radios

5.6. Bandwidth and MIMO - Challenges and Solutions

5.7. Key parameters that affect the 6G radio's performance

5.8. Proof of concepts - achieving beyond 100 Gbps

5.9. Radio link range vs system gain

5.10. Hardware Gap

5.11. The biggest bottleneck in THz region

5.12. Saturated output power vs frequency (all semiconductor technologies) - 1

5.13. Saturated output power vs frequency (all semiconductor technologies) - 2

5.14. Receiver Noise - Hardware Challenges

5.15. Choices of semiconductor for low noise amplifiers (LNA) in 6G

5.16. Phase noise - hardware challenges

5.17. Digital signal processing

5.18. Summary table of key THz Technologies

5.19. Summary table - key THz Characteristics

 

6.1. Building blocks for sub-THz radio

6.2. Power consumption calculation

6.3. Power consumption of PA scale with frequency

6.4. Higher frequency poses significant challenges in transmission distance

6.5. Power Consumption on the Transceiver Side (1)

6.6. Power Consumption on the Transceiver Side (2)

6.7. Power Consumption on the Transceiver Side (3)

6.8. Power Consumption on the Receiver Side

6.9. Summary (1)

6.10. Summary (2)

 

7.1.1. Introduction

7.1.2. What to consider when choosing semiconductor technologies for 6G applications

7.1.3. State of the art RF transistors performance

7.2. Si-based semiconductor: CMOS, SOI, SiGe

7.2.1. CMOS - Performance Limitations

7.2.2. CMOS technology - Bulk vs SOI

7.2.3. State-of-the-art RF CMOS technology in research and industry

7.2.4. FDSOI Ecosystem - key players

7.2.5. Summary - RF CMOS SOI Technology

7.2.6. SiGe

7.2.7. State-of-the-art RF SiGe technology in research and industry

7.2.8. Europe's Efforts in SiGe Development

7.2.9. Infineon and STMicroelectronics approaches to next generation SiGe BiCMOS

7.2.10. Summary - RF SiGe technology

7.3. GaAs and GaN

7.3.1. Wide Bandgap Semiconductor Basics

7.3.2. GaN's opportunity in 6G

7.3.3. GaN-on-Si, SiC or Diamond for RF

7.3.4. GaN-on-Si power amplifier for 100 GHz?

7.3.5. State of the art GaN power amplifier

7.3.6. Summary of RF GaN Suppliers

7.3.7. RF GaN Fabrication Lines

7.3.8. GaAs's opportunity for 6G

7.3.9. State-of-the-art GaAs based amplifier

7.3.10. Summary of GaAs suppliers

7.3.11. GaAs vs GaN for RF Power Amplifiers

7.3.12. Power amplifier technology benchmark

7.4. InP

7.4.1. State-of-the-art InP technology

7.4.2. InP HEMT vs InP HBT

7.4.3. InP opportunities for 6G

7.4.4. Heterogenous integration of InP with SiGe BiCMOS

7.4.5. State-of-the-art InP power amplifiers - the performance and the players

7.5. Summary of semiconductors for THz communication

7.5.1. Overview of Si vs III-V semiconductors for 6G

7.5.2. Challenges regarding semiconductor for THz communications

7.5.3. Overview of transistor performance metrics of different semiconductor technologies

7.5.4. Power amplifier benchmark in beyond 200 GHz frequency band

7.5.5. Power amplifier benchmark in beyond 200 GHz frequency band (2)

7.5.6. Power amplifier technology benchmark in D band (110 GHz - 170 GHz)

7.5.7. Overview of semiconductor technology choice for THz RF

7.5.8. Summary

 

8.1.1. Antennas for 6G

8.1.2. Navigating Challenges and Solutions in mmWave Phased Array Systems

8.1.3. Antenna Size Shrinks With Increasing Frequency

8.1.4. Antenna approaches

8.1.5. Challenges in 6G antennas

8.1.6. Antenna gain vs number of arrays

8.1.7. Trade off between power and antenna array size

8.1.8. 5G phase array antenna

8.1.9. Antenna Manufacturers

8.1.10. 6G 90 GHz phase array antenna - demonstration from Nokia

8.1.11. Technology benchmark of phase array in 28, 90, and 140 GHz.

8.1.12. 140 GHz phase array - transceiver analysis

8.1.13. Choice of Semiconductor for 140GHz Array

8.1.14. Considerations when building a 140 GHz phase array

8.2. Examples of state-of-the-art D-band (110 - 175 GHz) phase array modules

8.2.1. Samsung's latest THz prototyping wireless Platform with Adaptive Transmit and Receive Beamforming

8.2.2. 140 GHz THz prototype from Samsung - device architecture

8.2.3. 140 GHz THz prototype from Samsung and UCSB - IC and antenna fabrication details

8.2.4. UCSB 135 GHz MIMO hub transmitter array tile module

8.2.5. Mounting InP PA to the LTCC Carrier

8.2.6. Fully Integrated 2D Scalable TX/RX Chipset for D-Band (110 to 170GHz) Phased-Array-on-Glass Modules from Nokia

8.2.7. A proof-of-concept 130 GHz wireless 2x2 line-of-sight (LoS) MIMO - 1

8.2.8. A proof-of-concept 130 GHz wireless 2x2 line-of-sight (LoS) MIMO - 2

8.2.9. A 136-147 GHz Wafer-Scale Phased-Array Transmitter demo from UCSD - 1

8.2.10. A 136-147 GHz Wafer-Scale Phased-Array Transmitter demo from UCSD - 2

8.2.11. State-of-the-art D-band transmitters benchmark

 

9.1. Antenna Module Design Trends for 6G

9.2. Packaging Requirements

9.3. Choice of Antenna Packaging Technology Options

9.4. Three ways of mmWave antenna integration

9.5. Benchmarking Three Antenna Packaging Technologies

9.6. Next Generation Phased Array Targets

9.7. Antenna Packaging vs Operational Frequency

9.8. Trade-Off in Integration Technologies

9.9. Approaches to Integrate InP on CMOS

9.10. Antenna Integration Challenges in mmWave

9.11. AiP vs Discrete Antenna Techniques in Wireless Systems

9.12. Key Design Considerations for AiP

9.13. Benchmark of Substrate Materials for AiP

9.14. Benchmark of Substrate Technologies for AiP

9.15. Antenna on Chip (AoC) for 6G

9.16. Multiple transmitter coexistence for 5G and 6G RF FEM (from Skyworks Solutions) (1)

9.17. Multiple transmitter coexistence for 5G and 6G RF FEM (from Skyworks Solutions) (2)

9.18. Evolution of Hardware Components from 5G to 6G

9.19. Packaging Challenges for Freq. >100 GHz

9.20. mmWave AiP ecosystem

9.21. AiP for 5G and 6G, 2024-2034

 

10.1. New opportunities for low-loss materials in mmWave 5G and 6G

10.2. Typical Dk and Df values requirements by applications

10.3. Important factors to consider for the selection of low-loss materials

10.4. Overview of low-loss materials for 5G/6G

10.5. Benchmark - Dk vs Df of over 120 low-loss organic, inorganic & composite materials

10.6. Status and outlook of commercial low-loss materials for 5G, 6G, and THz PCBs/ components

10.7. More info about 5G and 6G Low Loss Materials

 

11.1. Evolution of MIMO in Wireless Communications

11.2. Challenges with mMIMO

11.3. Distributed MIMO

11.4. Cell-free Massive MIMO (Large-Scale Distributed MIMO)

11.5. Considerations for 6G Massive MIMO

11.6. Why Cell-Free MIMO

11.7. Benchmarking of Different MIMO Approaches

11.8. Benefits and Challenges of Cell-Free MIMO

11.9. An Example of Antenna Processing Unit for Cell-Free mMIMO

 

12.1. Executive Summary

12.2. The Global Connectivity Gap

12.3. Large Regional Disparity in Connectivity Gaps

12.4. Development of LEO NTNs

12.5. Falling Launch Costs Enable NTNs

12.6. Benchmark of different types of NTN technologies

12.7. Features comparison: HAPS vs LEO vs GEO

12.8. Direct to Cell

12.9. Impact of Distance on Beam Propagation

12.10. Free Space Path Loss

12.11. Comparison of NTNs for D2C

12.12. Can NTNs Provide 5/6G Service?

12.13. D2C Business Models

12.14. Economics of Starlink and D2C

12.15. Overview of enabling technologies for non-terrestrial networks

 

13.1.1. RIS - Executive Summary (1)

13.1.2. RIS - Executive Summary (2)

13.1.3. RIS - Overview

13.1.4. Challenges of High-frequency Communication

13.1.5. Overview of the main characteristics and parameters of smart EM devices

13.1.6. Heterogeneous smart electromagnetic (EM) environment

13.1.7. Technology benchmark of RIS with other smart EM devices

13.1.8. RIS vs Massive MIMO

13.1.9. RIS vs traditional reflecting array antennas

13.1.10. RIS vs Relay

13.1.11. RIS vs Relay technology benchmark

13.1.12. Overview of the main characteristics and parameters of smart EM devices

13.1.13. Operational Frequency for RIS

13.1.14. Key drivers for RIS

13.1.15. Key Challenges with RIS

13.1.16. Challenges for fully functionalized RIS environments

13.1.17. Key use cases of RIS

13.2. RIS Hardware

13.2.1. Metamaterials - Overview

13.2.2. Metamaterials for RIS in telecommunication

13.2.3. Multiple competing metamaterial manufacturing methods

13.2.4. More info about Metamaterials

13.2.5. RIS Architecture

13.2.6. RIS Signal Propagation Control

13.2.7. Passive, hybrid, and active RIS

13.2.8. Passive, Hybrid, and Active RIS Benchmarking

13.2.9. Active RIS - where's its use case? - 1

13.2.10. Active RIS - where's its use case? - 2

13.2.11. Different modes of RIS - Benchmark

13.2.12. Two design approaches for Transmissive RIS

13.2.13. Transmittive RIS device: 1 bit vs 2 bit design

13.2.14. Transmittive RIS device: continuous phase shift design

13.2.15. Simultaneously transmitting and reflecting (STAR) reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RISs)

13.2.16. How RIS can achieve efficient passive beamforming

13.2.17. RIS Power Paradox: Efficiency Challenges in High Frequency Communication Networks

13.2.18. Enhancing RIS Deployment: Insights from Computer Simulations

13.2.19. Materials and Manufacturing for RIS

13.2.20. Liquid crystal polymers (LCP) are a promising method for creating active metasurfaces

13.2.21. Comparing LCP and semiconductor RIS

13.2.22. Challenges in RIS

13.2.23. Typical RIS applications in a wireless network

13.2.24. RIS Use-Cases by Location

13.2.25. The current status of reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RIS)

13.2.26. NANOWEB is an example of passive RIS

13.2.27. Pivotal Commware develops holographic beamforming in hybrid RIS

13.2.28. Pivotal Commware Secured US$102 Million funding in 2023 to accelerate mmWave Wireless FWA Deployment

13.2.29. Greenerwaves

13.2.30. ZTE RIS solutions for 5G advanced and 6G

13.2.31. ZTE identifies two key RIS applications for 6G

13.2.32. Telecom operators' activities in RIS

13.2.33. RISE-6G investigates use of metamaterials in wireless communications

13.2.34. Metal oxide in glass windows causes interference

13.2.35. Building integrated transparent antennas for high frequency communication

13.2.36. Making low-emissivity coatings frequency selective

13.2.37. Alcan Systems develops transparent liquid crystal phased array antennas

13.3. RIS vs Other Smart Electromagnetic (EM) Devices Benchmark

13.3.1. Commercial opportunities against readiness levels of RIS

13.3.2. Huawei's 6G RIS prototype demo

13.3.3. Huawei's 6G RIS prototype demo results

13.4. RIS Forecast

13.4.1. RIS Revenue Forecasts

13.4.2. RIS Area Forecast, 2025-2036

 

14.1. The Case for Faster Wireless Networks

14.2. 6G - Key Applications Overview

14.3. Wireless cognition

14.4. THz Sensing - Overview

14.5. Operational Principles of THz Sensing

14.6. Apple's patents on THz sensor for gas sensing and imaging

14.7. THz Imaging - an overview

14.8. THz sensing and imaging - examples from Terasense

14.9. THz precise positioning - an overview

14.10. Integrated Sensing and Communication (ISAC) prototype from Huawei (1)

14.11. Integrated Sensing and Communication (ISAC) prototype from Huawei (2)

14.12. Digital Twinning

14.13. Overview of land-mobile service applications in the frequency range 275-450 GHz

14.14. Potential use cases in 275-450 GHz (1)

14.15. Potential use cases in 275-450 GHz (2)

15.1. RIS - Forecast Summary (1)

15.2. RIS - Forecast Summary (2)

15.3. RIS Revenue Forecasts

15.4. RIS Area Forecast, 2025-2036

15.5. 6G Base Stations (>100 GHz) Forecast

 

16.1. Alcan Systems

16.2. Ampleon

16.3. Atheraxon

16.4. Commscope

16.5. Ericsson (2020)

16.6. Ericsson (2021)

16.7. Ericsson (2025)

16.8. Freshwave

16.9. GaN Systems

16.10. Huawei

16.11. Kyocera

16.12. Metamaterials

16.13. Nokia

16.14. NXP Semiconductors

16.15. Omniflow

16.16. Picocom

16.17. Pivotal Commware

16.18. Renesas Electronics Corporation

16.19. Solvay

16.20. TMYTEK

16.21. ZTE