Summary

The global writing instrument market is expected to be valued at US$ 28 Bn in 2025, reaching US$ 40 Bn by 2032 at a steady CAGR of 5.23%. Market growth is fueled by rising literacy rates, expanding educational infrastructure, increased corporate activity, and growing consumer interest in premium and innovative stationery. Additionally, luxury pens are gaining popularity as gifting items and collectibles, creating a profitable niche within the industry.

Writing Instrument Market – Report Scope

The writing instrument industry covers a wide range of products for educational, professional, and creative applications, including pens, pencils, coloring tools, and markers. It serves a diverse customer base—students, professionals, and institutions—via multiple distribution channels, from hypermarkets to online platforms. Product innovation, ergonomic design, sustainability, and personalization are shaping the competitive landscape, while eco-friendly lines and premiumization trends are boosting consumer appeal.

Market Growth Drivers

The market is being driven by the rapid expansion of the education sector, particularly in developing economies where literacy is rising sharply. Corporate growth and increased office-based employment continue to support consistent stationery demand. The premium and personalized segment is gaining momentum, fueled by luxury writing tools for gifting. Technological advancements such as improved ink quality, eco-conscious materials, and digital-enabled smart pens are enhancing product appeal. Social media influence and online brand engagement are also accelerating market penetration.

Market Restraints

The growing adoption of digital devices for communication and note-taking is gradually reducing demand for traditional writing tools in certain markets. Price fluctuations in raw materials like plastics and metals are pressuring profit margins. Competition from low-cost, unorganized local manufacturers in emerging economies adds pricing pressure for established brands. Moreover, the environmental impact of non-biodegradable products is prompting regulatory changes and shifting consumer preferences away from mass-market plastic-based instruments.

Market Opportunities

The shift toward eco-friendly stationery—such as biodegradable pens, refillable markers, and recycled paper pencils—is opening new growth avenues. Premium and luxury segments, especially in Asia-Pacific and Europe, offer high-margin opportunities. Smart writing instruments capable of digitizing notes are becoming popular in the education and corporate sectors. Expanding e-commerce channels in emerging markets provide brands with opportunities to reach wider audiences through innovative designs, subscription models, and targeted marketing campaigns.

Regional Outlook

Asia-Pacific leads the global market, driven by a large student population, increasing disposable incomes, and strong domestic manufacturing in China, India, and Japan. North America remains lucrative, with stable corporate demand and growing interest in luxury stationery. Europe is witnessing rising sales of sustainable and artisanal products, with brands emphasizing eco-innovation. Latin America and Middle East & Africa are emerging growth hubs, supported by expanding education systems and higher consumer spending on branded stationery.

Key Companies

• Newell Brands, Inc.

• Pilot Corporation

• Shanghai M&G Stationery Inc

• Acco Brands

• Ryohin Keikaku Co., Ltd. (Muji)

• F.I.L.A. Spa

• Faber-Castell

• Schwanhäußer Industrieholding GmbH & Co. KG

• Mitsubishi Pencil Co., Ltd.

• Société BIC SA

• Kokuyo Co. Ltd

• Staedtler Mars GmbH & Co. KG

• Luxor Writing Instruments Private Limited

• Linc Pen & Plastics Ltd.

Market Segmentation

By Product Type

• Pencil

o Graphite Pencil

o Mechanical Pencil

• Pen

o Fountain Pen

o Ball Point Pen

o Roller Pen

o Gel Pen

o Others

• Colouring Instruments

• Highlighter & Markers

• Others

By End-use

• Students

• Independent Professionals

• Institutions

• Others

By Sales Channel

• Hypermarkets/Supermarkets

• Specialty Stores

• Multi-brand Stores

• Online Retailers

• Other Sales Channels

By Region

• North America

• Latin America

• Europe

• Asia Pacific

• Middle East & Africa

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Table of Contents

1. Executive Summary
1.1. Global Writing Instruments Market Snapshot
1.2. Future Projections
1.3. Key Market Trends
1.4. Regional Snapshot, by Value, 2025
1.5. Analyst Recommendations
2. Market Overview
2.1. Market Definitions and Segmentations
2.2. Market Dynamics
2.2.1. Drivers
2.2.2. Restraints
2.2.3. Market Opportunities
2.3. Value Chain Analysis
2.4. Porter’s Five Forces Analysis
2.5. COVID-19 Impact Analysis
2.5.1. Supply
2.5.2. Demand
2.6. Impact of Ukraine-Russia Conflict
2.7. Economic Overview
2.7.1. World Economic Projections
2.8. PESTLE Analysis
3. Global Writing Instruments Market Outlook, 2019-2032
3.1. Global Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
3.1.1. Key Highlights
3.1.1.1. Pencil
3.1.1.1.1. Graphite Pencils
3.1.1.1.2. Mechanical Pencils
3.1.1.2. Pen
3.1.1.2.1. Fountain Pen
3.1.1.2.2. Ball Point Pen
3.1.1.2.3. Roller Pen
3.1.1.2.4. Gel Pen
3.1.1.2.5. Others
3.1.1.3. Colouring Instruments
3.1.1.4. Highlighter & Markers
3.1.1.5. Others
3.2. Global Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
3.2.1. Key Highlights
3.2.1.1. Students
3.2.1.2. Independent Professionals
3.2.1.3. Institutions
3.2.1.4. Others
3.3. Global Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
3.3.1. Key Highlights
3.3.1.1. Hypermarkets/Supermarkets
3.3.1.2. Specialty Stores
3.3.1.3. Multi-brand Stores
3.3.1.4. Online Retailers
3.3.1.5. Other Sales Channels
3.4. Global Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by Region, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
3.4.1. Key Highlights
3.4.1.1. North America
3.4.1.2. Europe
3.4.1.3. Asia Pacific
3.4.1.4. Latin America
3.4.1.5. Middle East & Africa
4. North America Writing Instruments Market Outlook, 2019-2032
4.1. North America Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
4.1.1. Key Highlights
4.1.1.1. Pencil
4.1.1.1.1. Graphite Pencils
4.1.1.1.2. Mechanical Pencils
4.1.1.2. Pen
4.1.1.2.1. Fountain Pen
4.1.1.2.2. Ball Point Pen
4.1.1.2.3. Roller Pen
4.1.1.2.4. Gel Pen
4.1.1.2.5. Others
4.1.1.3. Colouring Instruments
4.1.1.4. Highlighter & Markers
4.1.1.5. Others
4.2. North America Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
4.2.1. Key Highlights
4.2.1.1. Students
4.2.1.2. Independent Professionals
4.2.1.3. Institutions
4.2.1.4. Others
4.3. North America Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
4.3.1. Key Highlights
4.3.1.1. Hypermarkets/Supermarkets
4.3.1.2. Specialty Stores
4.3.1.3. Multi-brand Stores
4.3.1.4. Online Retailers
4.3.1.5. Other Sales Channels
4.3.2. BPS Analysis/Market Attractiveness Analysis
4.4. North America Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by Country, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
4.4.1. Key Highlights
4.4.1.1. U.S. Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
4.4.1.2. U.S. Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
4.4.1.3. U.S. Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
4.4.1.4. Canada Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
4.4.1.5. Canada Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
4.4.1.6. Canada Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
4.4.2. BPS Analysis/Market Attractiveness Analysis
5. Europe Writing Instruments Market Outlook, 2019-2032
5.1. Europe Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.1.1. Key Highlights
5.1.1.1. Pencil
5.1.1.1.1. Graphite Pencils
5.1.1.1.2. Mechanical Pencils
5.1.1.2. Pen
5.1.1.2.1. Fountain Pen
5.1.1.2.2. Ball Point Pen
5.1.1.2.3. Roller Pen
5.1.1.2.4. Gel Pen
5.1.1.2.5. Others
5.1.1.3. Colouring Instruments
5.1.1.4. Highlighter & Markers
5.1.1.5. Others
5.2. Europe Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.2.1. Key Highlights
5.2.1.1. Students
5.2.1.2. Independent Professionals
5.2.1.3. Institutions
5.2.1.4. Others
5.3. Europe Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.3.1. Key Highlights
5.3.1.1. Hypermarkets/Supermarkets
5.3.1.2. Specialty Stores
5.3.1.3. Multi-brand Stores
5.3.1.4. Online Retailers
5.3.1.5. Other Sales Channels
5.3.2. BPS Analysis/Market Attractiveness Analysis
5.4. Europe Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by Country, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1. Key Highlights
5.4.1.1. Germany Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1.2. Germany Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1.3. Germany Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1.4. U.K. Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1.5. U.K. Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1.6. U.K. Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1.7. France Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1.8. France Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1.9. France Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1.10. Italy Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1.11. Italy Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1.12. Italy Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1.13. Turkey Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1.14. Turkey Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1.15. Turkey Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1.16. Russia Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1.17. Russia Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1.18. Russia Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1.19. Rest of Europe Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1.20. Rest of Europe Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.1.21. Rest of Europe Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
5.4.2. BPS Analysis/Market Attractiveness Analysis
6. Asia Pacific Cassava Starch Market Outlook, 2019-2032
6.1. Asia Pacific Cassava Starch Market Outlook, by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.1.1. Key Highlights
6.1.1.1. Pencil
6.1.1.1.1. Graphite Pencils
6.1.1.1.2. Mechanical Pencils
6.1.1.2. Pen
6.1.1.2.1. Fountain Pen
6.1.1.2.2. Ball Point Pen
6.1.1.2.3. Roller Pen
6.1.1.2.4. Gel Pen
6.1.1.2.5. Others
6.1.1.3. Colouring Instruments
6.1.1.4. Highlighter & Markers
6.1.1.5. Others
6.2. Asia Pacific Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.2.1. Key Highlights
6.2.1.1. Students
6.2.1.2. Independent Professionals
6.2.1.3. Institutions
6.2.1.4. Others
6.3. Asia Pacific Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.3.1. Key Highlights
6.3.1.1. Hypermarkets/Supermarkets
6.3.1.2. Specialty Stores
6.3.1.3. Multi-brand Stores
6.3.1.4. Online Retailers
6.3.1.5. Other Sales Channels
6.3.2. BPS Analysis/Market Attractiveness Analysis
6.4. Asia Pacific Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by Country, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.4.1. Key Highlights
6.4.1.1. China Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.4.1.2. China Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.4.1.3. China Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.4.1.4. Japan Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.4.1.5. Japan Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.4.1.6. Japan Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.4.1.7. South Korea Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.4.1.8. South Korea Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.4.1.9. South Korea Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.4.1.10. India Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.4.1.11. India Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.4.1.12. India Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.4.1.13. Southeast Asia Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.4.1.14. Southeast Asia Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.4.1.15. Southeast Asia Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.4.1.16. Rest of Asia Pacific Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.4.1.17. Rest of Asia Pacific Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.4.1.18. Rest of Asia Pacific Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
6.4.2. BPS Analysis/Market Attractiveness Analysis
7. Latin America Writing Instruments Market Outlook, 2019-2032
7.1. Latin America Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
7.1.1. Key Highlights
7.1.1.1. Pencil
7.1.1.1.1. Graphite Pencils
7.1.1.1.2. Mechanical Pencils
7.1.1.2. Pen
7.1.1.2.1. Fountain Pen
7.1.1.2.2. Ball Point Pen
7.1.1.2.3. Roller Pen
7.1.1.2.4. Gel Pen
7.1.1.2.5. Others
7.1.1.3. Colouring Instruments
7.1.1.4. Highlighter & Markers
7.1.1.5. Others
7.2. Latin America Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
7.2.1.1. Students
7.2.1.2. Independent Professionals
7.2.1.3. Institutions
7.2.1.4. Others
7.3. Latin America Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
7.3.1. Key Highlights
7.3.1.1. Hypermarkets/Supermarkets
7.3.1.2. Specialty Stores
7.3.1.3. Multi-brand Stores
7.3.1.4. Online Retailers
7.3.1.5. Other Sales Channels
7.3.2. BPS Analysis/Market Attractiveness Analysis
7.4. Latin America Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by Country, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
7.4.1. Key Highlights
7.4.1.1. Brazil Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
7.4.1.2. Brazil Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
7.4.1.3. Brazil Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
7.4.1.4. Mexico Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
7.4.1.5. Mexico Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
7.4.1.6. Mexico Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
7.4.1.7. Argentina Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
7.4.1.8. Argentina Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
7.4.1.9. Argentina Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
7.4.1.10. Rest of Latin America Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
7.4.1.11. Rest of Latin America Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
7.4.1.12. Rest of Latin America Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
7.4.2. BPS Analysis/Market Attractiveness Analysis
8. Middle East & Africa Writing Instruments Market Outlook, 2019-2032
8.1. Middle East & Africa Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
8.1.1. Key Highlights
8.1.1.1. Pencil
8.1.1.1.1. Graphite Pencils
8.1.1.1.2. Mechanical Pencils
8.1.1.2. Pen
8.1.1.2.1. Fountain Pen
8.1.1.2.2. Ball Point Pen
8.1.1.2.3. Roller Pen
8.1.1.2.4. Gel Pen
8.1.1.2.5. Others
8.1.1.3. Colouring Instruments
8.1.1.4. Highlighter & Markers
8.1.1.5. Others
8.2. Middle East & Africa Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
8.2.1. Key Highlights
8.2.1.1. Students
8.2.1.2. Independent Professionals
8.2.1.3. Institutions
8.2.1.4. Others
8.3. Middle East & Africa Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
8.3.1.1. Hypermarkets/Supermarkets
8.3.1.2. Specialty Stores
8.3.1.3. Multi-brand Stores
8.3.1.4. Online Retailers
8.3.1.5. Other Sales Channels
8.3.2. BPS Analysis/Market Attractiveness Analysis
8.4. Middle East & Africa Writing Instruments Market Outlook, by Country, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
8.4.1. Key Highlights
8.4.1.1. GCC Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
8.4.1.2. GCC Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
8.4.1.3. GCC Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
8.4.1.4. South Africa Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
8.4.1.5. South Africa Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
8.4.1.6. South Africa Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
8.4.1.7. Egypt Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
8.4.1.8. Egypt Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
8.4.1.9. Egypt Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
8.4.1.10. Nigeria Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
8.4.1.11. Nigeria Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
8.4.1.12. Nigeria Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
8.4.1.13. Rest of Middle East & Africa Writing Instruments Market by Product Type, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
8.4.1.14. Rest of Middle East & Africa Writing Instruments Market by Sales Channel, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
8.4.1.15. Rest of Middle East & Africa Writing Instruments Market by End Use, Value (US$ Bn), 2019-2032
8.4.2. BPS Analysis/Market Attractiveness Analysis
9. Competitive Landscape
9.1. By End Use vs by Sales Channel Heat map
9.2. Manufacturer vs by Sales Channel Heatmap
9.3. Company Market Share Analysis, 2025
9.4. Competitive Dashboard
9.5. Company Profiles
9.5.1. Société BIC SA
9.5.1.1. Company Overview
9.5.1.2. Product Portfolio
9.5.1.3. Financial Overview
9.5.1.4. Business Strategies and Development
9.5.2. Faber-Castell
9.5.2.1. Company Overview
9.5.2.2. Product Portfolio
9.5.2.3. Financial Overview
9.5.2.4. Business Strategies and Development
9.5.3. Mitsubishi Pencil Co., Ltd.
9.5.3.1. Company Overview
9.5.3.2. Product Portfolio
9.5.3.3. Financial Overview
9.5.3.4. Business Strategies and Development
9.5.4. Pilot Corporation
9.5.4.1. Company Overview
9.5.4.2. Product Portfolio
9.5.4.3. Financial Overview
9.5.4.4. Business Strategies and Development
9.5.5. Schwanhäußer Industrieholding GmbH & Co. KG
9.5.5.1. Company Overview
9.5.5.2. Product Portfolio
9.5.5.3. Financial Overview
9.5.5.4. Business Strategies and Development
9.5.6. Newell Brands, Inc.
9.5.6.1. Company Overview
9.5.6.2. Product Portfolio
9.5.6.3. Financial Overview
9.5.6.4. Business Strategies and Development
9.5.7. Shanghai M&G Stationery Inc.
9.5.7.1. Company Overview
9.5.7.2. Product Portfolio
9.5.7.3. Financial Overview
9.5.7.4. Business Strategies and Development
9.5.8. Schneider Schreibgeräte GmbH
9.5.8.1. Company Overview
9.5.8.2. Product Portfolio
9.5.8.3. Financial Overview
9.5.8.4. Business Strategies and Development
9.5.9. Kokuyo Camlin Limited
9.5.9.1. Company Overview
9.5.9.2. Product Portfolio
9.5.9.3. Financial Overview
9.5.9.4. Business Strategies and Development
9.5.10. C. Josef Lamy GmbH Srl
9.5.10.1. Company Overview
9.5.10.2. Product Portfolio
9.5.10.3. Financial Overview
9.5.10.4. Business Strategies and Development
9.5.11. STAEDTLER Mars GmbH & Co. KG
9.5.11.1. Company Overview
9.5.11.2. Product Portfolio
9.5.11.3. Financial Overview
9.5.11.4. Business Strategies and Development
9.5.12. Luxor Writing Instruments Private Limited
9.5.12.1. Company Overview
9.5.12.2. Product Portfolio
9.5.12.3. Financial Overview
9.5.12.4. Business Strategies and Development
9.5.13. Linc Pen & Plastics Ltd.
9.5.13.1. Company Overview
9.5.13.2. Product Portfolio
9.5.13.3. Financial Overview
9.5.13.4. Business Strategies and Development
9.5.14. Hindustan Pencils Private Limited
9.5.14.1. Company Overview
9.5.14.2. Product Portfolio
9.5.14.3. Financial Overview
9.5.14.4. Business Strategies and Development
10. Appendix
10.1. Research Methodology
10.2. Report Assumptions
10.3. Acronyms and Abbreviations